Taoism

Taoism (Daoism) is the English name referring to a variety of related Chinese philosophical and religious traditions and concepts. These traditions influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally. ^[1] Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao; namely, love, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei (”non-action”), spontaneity, humanism, and emptiness.

The character Tao 道 (or Dao, depending on the romanisation scheme) means “path” or “way”, but in Chinese religion and philosophy it has taken on more abstract meanings. Tao is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Central Asian concepts of atman and dharma.^[2] The word “Taoism” is used to translate different Chinese terms. Daojiao/Taochiao (道教 “teachings/religion of the Dao”) refers to Daoism as a religion. Daojia/Taochia (道家 “school of the Dao”) refers to the studies of scholars, or “philosophical” Daoism. However, most scholars have abandoned the dichotomy of “religious” and “philosophical” Daoism.^[3]

Most traditional Chinese Taoists are polytheistic. Nature and ancestor spirits are also common in popular Taoism. Organized Taoism distinguishes its ritual activity from that of the folk religion, which some professional Taoists (Daoshi) view as debased. This sort of shamanism is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemy among the “elite” Taoists.

Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui, and many styles of qigong breath training disciplines are intertwined with Taoism throughout history.

Categorization

There is a great deal of debate over how, and whether, Taoism should be subdivided. Some scholars have divided it into the following three categories.:^[4]

“Philosophical Taoism“. (Daojia). A philosophical school based on the texts Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi;
“Religious Taoism“. (Daojiao). A family of organized Chinese religious movements originating from the Celestial Masters movement during the late Han Dynasty and later including the “Orthodox” (Zhengyi) or “Complete Reality” (Quanzhen) sects, which collectively trace back to Zhang Daoling in the late Han Dynasty;
“Folk Taoism“. The Chinese folk religion.[5]

It must be noted that this distinction is complicated by hermeneutic difficulty. The categorization of Taoist sects and movements is very controversial.^[6] Many scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao, and that the distinction is propagated by people who are not familiar with Taoism.^[7]

Much uncertainty exists over the meaning of Taoism. In some countries and contexts, such as the Taoism organizations of China and Taiwan, the label is applied to Chinese folk religion, which would otherwise not have a readily recognizable English name. However, many of its practitioners would not recognize Taoism (in any language) as the name of their religion.

Beliefs
Taoism has never been a unified religion and has always consisted of different teachings based on many different original revelations. Therefore different branches of Taoism often have very different beliefs. Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that all the schools share.

Taoist theology focuses on doctrines of wu wei (”non-action”), spontaneity, humanism, relativism and emptiness. This philosophical aspect of Taoism emphasizes various themes found in the Tao Te Ching (道德經) such as naturalness, vitality, peace, “non-action” (wu wei), emptiness (refinement), detachment, the strength of softness (or flexibility), and in the Zhuangzi such as receptiveness, spontaneity, the relativism of human ways of life, ways of speaking and guiding behavior.

Tao
Tao can be roughly stated to be the flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order. Tao is believed to be the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered. Tao is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao. The flow of qi, as the essential energy of action and existence, is compared to the universal order of Tao. Tao is compared to what it is not, like the negative theology of Western scholars. It is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence

Tao is also associated with a “proper” attitude, morality and lifestyle. This is intimately tied to the complex concept of Te (德), or literally “virtue”. Te is the active expression of Tao. Taoism generally expresses this as “integrity” or “wholeness”. Tao is considered a “way”, while Te is the active living, or cultivation, of that “way”.

Wu wei

Wu wei (Traditional Chinese characters: 無為 Simplified Chinese characters: 无为) is a central concept in Taoism. The literal meaning of wu wei is “without action”. It is often expressed by the paradox wei wu wei, meaning “action without action” or “effortless doing”.>[16] The practice and efficacy of wu wei are fundamental in Chinese thought, most prominently emphasized in Taoism. The goal of wu wei is alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things. It is believed by Taoists that masters of wu wei can control this invisible potential, the inate yin-action of the Way.[17]

In ancient Taoist texts, wu wei is associated with water through its yielding nature Water is soft and weak, it is noted, but it can move earth and carve stone. Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts his will against the world, he disrupts that harmony. Taoism does not identify man’s will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that man must place his will in harmony with the natural universe.

Pu

Pu (樸) is translated as “uncarved block” or “simplicity”. It is a metaphor for the state of wu wei (無為) and the principle of jian (儉).[20] It represents a passive state of receptiveness. Pu is a symbol for a state of pure potential and perception without prejudice. In this state, Taoists believe everything is seen as it is, without preconceptions or illusion.

Pu is seen as keeping oneself in the primordial state of tao. It is believed to be the true nature of the mind, unburdened by knowledge or experiences.[23] In the state of pu, there is no right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. There is only pure experience, or awareness, free from learned labels and definitions. It is this state of being that is the goal of following wu wei.

Spirituality

Taoists believe that man is a microcosm for the universe. The body ties directly into the Chinese five elements. The five organs correlate with the five elements, the five directions and the seasons. Akin to the “neoplatonic maxim” of “as above, so below”, Taoism posits that by understanding himself, man may gain knowledge of the universe.

In Taoism, even beyond Chinese folk religion, various rituals, exercises, and substances are said to positively affect one’s physical health. They are also intended to align oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys.

These concepts seem basic to Taoism in its elite forms. Internal alchemy and various rituals are intended to extend life, even to the point of immortality. Immortals, their actions and their relationships with the gods and natural forces form a significant portion of Taoist mythology.

Ehics

The Three Jewels, or Three Treasures (Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sānbǎo; Wade-Giles: san-pao), are basic virtues in Taoism. The Three Jewels are love, moderation and humility. They are also translated as compassion, simplicity and modesty. Arthur Waley describes them as “[t]he three rules that formed the practical, political side of the author’s teaching”. He correlated the Three Treasures with “abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment”, “absolute simplicity of living”, and “refusal to assert active authority”.

The first of the Three Treasures is ci (Chinese: 慈; pinyin: cí; Wade-Giles: tz’u; literally “compassion, love, kindness”), which the Tao Te Ching parallels with familial and brotherly love. It is compared to loving others and the world as a person loves their own existence. The second is jian (Chinese: 儉; pinyin: jiǎn; Wade-Giles: chien; literally “moderation, economy, restraint”), which the Tao Te Ching praises. Jian is connected with the Taoist metaphor pu. (樸 “uncarved wood; simplicity”). It represents perfect efficiency and simplicity of desire. The third treasure is the phrase bugan wei tianxia xian (不敢為天下先), meaning “not dare to be first in the world”. It is connected to a fear of death, out of a love for life. Taoism posits that to be first is to expose oneself to the world’s destructive forces. Remaining behind and embracing humility allows time for one to bear fruit.

Pantheon

Traditional Chinese religion is polytheistic. Its deities are part of a heavenly hierarchy that mirrors the bureaucracy of Imperial China. Deities may be promoted or demoted. Some deities are exalted humans. The particular deities worshipped vary according to geography and historical period, though the general pattern of worship is more constant

There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon. Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the head deity. Intellectual (”elite”) Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, “Lord Lao”) and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon.

In particular Taoist systems, Hong-jun lao-zu (鸿钧老祖 or 鸿元老祖, the great primal originator) is the common ancestor/teacher of all the deities.

While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi, and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching, these have generally not become the objects of worship. Traditional conceptions of Tao are not to be confused with the Western concepts of theism and monotheism. Being one with the Tao does not indicate a union with an eternal spirit in the Hindu sense, but rather living in accordance with nature.

Scripture

The Daozang (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is sometimes referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The version surviving today was published during the Ming dynasty.

The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts.[38] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripitaka, it is divided into three dong (洞, “caves”, “grottoes”). They are arranged from “highest” to “lowest”:

The Zhen (”real” or “truth”) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts. The Xuan (”mystery”) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures. The Shen (”divine”) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan revelations.

Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.

The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that reciting certain texts often enough will be rewarded with immortality.

In Taiwan, one often finds Buddhist texts being chanted in Taoist temples. Some Chinese movements and Western schools of Taoism emphasise newly-revealed scriptures.

While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are other important texts in traditional Taoism. Taishang Ganying Pian (”Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution”) discusses sin and ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries.[43] It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendents, will suffer and have shortened lives.[44] Both the Taipingjing (”Scripture on Great Peace”) and the Baopuzi (”Book of the Master Who Keeps to simplicity”) contain early alchemical formulas that early Taoists believed could lead to immortality.

Tao Te Ching

Te Ching, or Daodejing, is widely considered to be the most influential Taoist text. It is a foundational scripture of central importance in Taoism. It has been used as a ritual text throughout the history of religious Taoism. However, the precise date that it was written is the subject of debate, there are those who put it anywhere from the 6th century BCE to the 3rd century BCE.

Taoist commentators have deeply considered the opening lines of the Tao Te Ching. They are widely discussed in both academic and mainstream literature. A common interpretation is similar to Korzybski’s observation that “the map is not the territory”.

The opening lines, with literal and common translation, are:

道可道，非常道。 (dao (ways) can be way-ed, not usual ways) “The Way that can be followed is not the constant Way.” 名可名，非常名。 (names can be named, not usual names) “The Name that can be named is not the constant Name.”

Tao literally means “road” or “way”, and can figuratively mean “principle” or “true way”. The philosophical and religious “Tao” is infinite, without limitation. One view states that the paradoxical opening is intended to prepare the reader for teachings about the unteachable Tao.

Tao is believed to be transcendent, indistinct and without form. Hence, it cannot be named or categorized. Even the word “Tao” can be considered a dangerous temptation to make Tao a limiting “name”.

The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference.

The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be unnameable and accomplishing great things through small means.[54] There is significant debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferred, and which particular translation methodology is best. Discussions and disputes about various translations of the Tao Tao Ching can become acrimonious, involving deeply entrenched views.

Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. The Heshang Gong commentary was most likely written in the second century CE, and as perhaps the oldest commentary, contains the edition of the Tao Te Ching that was transmitted to the present day.[56] Other important commentaries include the Xiang’er, one of the most important texts from the Celestial Master movement, and Wang Bi’s commentary.

History

Taoism’s origins may be traced to prehistoric Chinese religions in China. They are found in the composition of the Tao Te Ching (3rd or 4th century BCE), or amidst the activity of Zhang Daoling (2nd century AD). Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid second century CE.

Taoism gained official status in China during the Tang Dynasty, whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.

Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang.

Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes.

The Qing Dynasty, however, much favored Confucian classics and rejected Taoist works. During the eighteenth century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virutally all Taoist books.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, Taoism had fallen so much from favor, that only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing.

Taoism is one of five religions recognised by the PRC, which insists on controlling its activities through a state bureaucracy (the China Taoist Association).

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